Liberalism in China or Chinese liberalism resulted from the introduction of classical liberalism into China during the period of Western domination towards the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Translations of John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Immanuel Kant, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and many other writers had a cumulative effect, as did the ascendancy of liberalism in world powers like Britain, France and the United States. The establishment of the Republic of China in 1911-12 signaled the acceptance (at least in principle) of these models and the liberal values with which they identified, such as constitutionalism and the separation of powers.